Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection

Report: Place of Origin of Malaria: America?, [Henry Rose Carter], [1923]
	Miscel. S. M. J. Place of Origin of Malaria. America? Did malaria exist in America prior to its discovery? The writer is inclined to doubt it. Anopheles mosquitoes did, however, the American spe- cies differing from those in the Old World, and when the parasites were introduced by European, and African, carriers it quickly spread both from them and from the Indians infected [from them-,] directly and indirectly. The evidence for this is: (1) That in the early expeditions of Europeans coming from reason- ably healthful regions and simply passing through hitherto unvisited In- dian country extensive sickness is rarely recorded, except that due to hardship and starvation. This is true even when the region traversed by the expedition is now malarious and was at the time physically well suited for the production of Anopheles mosquitoes and doubtless was then produc- ing them. In a number of such cases the absence of sickness is implied and in some specifically mentioned. (2) When, however, a fairly prolonged stay or a settlement was made by Europeans in places which are now malarious "fevers and calen- turas" very generally developed and in many cases were deadly. This was especially the case when the expeditions came [from] , or via, places (usually in America) where such fevers were prevalent. Even a somewhat prolonged stay at one place--as when Orellana remained "over the whole of Lent" at one place on the Amazon--did not lead to sickness when the Europeans had been long resident in regions free from malaria. For example: (1) The implication is strong that there was no se- rious sickness--if there was any--in Oxenham's expedition of 1575 across the Isthmus of Darien and return until he had gone into fairly perma- nent camp on the north coast in the country of the "Cimaroons"--negro
	negro 2 slaves who had run away from the Spaniards. Yet Isaac Strain, U. S. Navy, in 1854, with all the facilities of that much later period, lost a number of his men from fevers on crossing one way and could not have made the re- turn journey. (2) Drake's Darien expedition of 1572 reported no sickness until they had been long in permanent camp on the north coast of the Isthmus and practically in communication with Spanish settlements. They had been in the country about six months before the outbreak of "calenturas" show- ed--which may, or may not, have been malaria. (3) Raleigh's expedition of 1595 by boat and on foot up the Orino- co for 400 miles. To quote him: "Moreover the country is healthful as 100 persons and more which lay (without shift most sluttishly and were evry day almost melted with heat in rowing and marching and suddenly wet againe with greate showers and did eat all sorte of corrupt fruits and made meales of fresh fish without seasoning: of Tortugas: of Lagartos and of al sorte good and bad without either order or measure and besides did lodge in the open air evry night) we lost not any one, nor had one ill disposed to my knowledge, nor found anie Calentura or other of those pestilent dis- eases which dwell in all hote regions so near the Equinoctial line." He entered the river the latter part of March or early in April-- was there in the rainy season--and made it his business to stop at Indian villages. This result could not now be duplicated even with quinine. (4) Orellana's long voyage down the Amazon in 1541 entailed lit- tle, apparently no, loss from sickness, although the men were broken by pri- vation and starving before they started--seven dying of hunger. They made at least two prolonged stops--one of not less than 47 days near the mouth of the Napo (building boats) and one of 18 days, repairing them some months later. They had much communication--hostile generally--with the Indians
	Indians 3 and got their provisions from their villages. At present from such a trip of over seven months, and without quinine, we should expect a loss of over 75% of the expedition. (5) The first invasion of Tabasco by Cortez in 1519 was apparently not followed by sickness among his men, yet in 1529, when Montejo wished to use this province as a base for the invasion of Yucatan, it was so un- healthful that the Spaniards, occupying it since 1523, were on the point of abandoning it. (6) There were deaths, probably a number of them, in the expedi- tion Cortez led across the wet lands of Tehuantepac and southern Campeche and Yucatan to Honduras in 1524-5, but they seem to have been due to priva- tion and hardships rather than disease--they even ate their guides ("a stra- tegic error," records Capitan Don Bernal Diaz) and thus lost their way. Had that country been as malarious as it is now, these Spaniards and Mexi- cans from the highlands had probably never reached the Honduran Coast. (7) The sanitary condition of the country adjacent to the port of Vera Cruz (Medillin) changed much for the worse both for Spanish and In- dians after its occupation as a permanent settlement from--say--1519, when it was first occupied and when we hear nothing of its unhealthfulness, to 1537 when Bishop Marroquin complained so bitterly of it. For the second part: settlements once established in places now re- cognized as malarious became unhealthful--sometimes extremely so--as Isabe- la: Nombre de Dios: Vera Cruz. Sta. Marta: Martinique: the Guianas: James- town: Biloxi: Port Royal, S. C.: New Orleans: Savannah etc. It is to be noted that almost as soon as these settlements in Spanish and French Ameri- ca were established, negroes direct from Africa were introduced. Compare this with Africa. Europeans visiting the West Coast of Af- rica--even the first visitors--came away with fevers, although the visit may have been very brief. No stay on any West African river comparable to
	to 4 Raleigh's on the Orinoco or Orellana's on the Amazon was possible without an enormous loss of life--possibly of the whole expedition judging from the loss from staying a shorter time. When in the voyage to America ves- sels stopped at West African ports, whether mainland or on the adjacent islands, we find almost always, no expressed exceptions are recalled, that they suffered from fevers during the remainder of the voyage before reach- ing America. Such was the case with Hawkins in 1567: with Drake and Car- leisle in 1588 and with very many others.

Report: Place of Origin of Malaria: America?, [Henry Rose Carter], [1923]