Examination Paper: Physiology, by Walter Reed, [February 8, 1875] |
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Exam for
army commision Physiology. I. Enumerate the mucous membranes of the body,
dwelling on the variations in their structure. The mucous membranes of the body may be
Enumerated as follows: 1. Commencing at orifice
of mouth & Extending through pharynx & oesophagus,
stomach, small &large intestines, to the orifice
of the anus. 2. Commencing at antr nares & exten-
ding through larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes to the
air Vesicles. 3. Commencing at meatus urinarius
Extending through urethra, bladders, ureters,
pelvis of Kidney into tubuli uriniferi. 4. In the
female, commencing at orifice of Vagina, extending
through Uterus & fallopian tubes. The mucous membrane of mouth also extends through
the ducts of the parotid [Salivary] glands. The mucous
membrane of the pharynx is continued into the
Eustachian tubes, lining the Cavity of the Lympanum
& forms the intl layer of membrane Lympani.
The mucous membrane of the nares is also con-
tinued into the frontal sinuses, lining the antrium,
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is continued through the nasal duct to the lac [h] ry-
mal sac & through the lachrymal canals to the puncta
lachrymalia. The mucous membrane of the duodemum
is continued into the ducted commencing choledicus
& into gall-bladder. The structure of mucous membranes
throughout the body present certain general
Characters. They all consist of a thin homo
genious basic membrane, resting on a soft, fine
areolar tissue & are covered by a layer of epi-
thelium, differing in different parts of the body.
Besides they have certain glands, which secrete
thier proper secretion. To begin with that of the mouth, we find covering it
a layer of squamous epithelium also provided
with numerous small glands, whose ducts open on
the surface by minute orifices & are lined with
glandular Epithelium. We also find a member of
papillae, classed as 1st filliform, 2nd fungiform
& 3rd Circumvallate. Tracing the membrane
backwards, & reaching upper part of pharynx
we find a columnar Ciliated Epithelium.
(This is the "Respiratory" part of pharynx) for the
lower part of the pharynx & throughout the oesoph
aqus we find the pavement Epithelium. |
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At the Cardiac orifice of stomach, this epithelium
ends abruptly & we find the stomach & remain-
der of alimentary canal lined by columnar
Epithelium. The mucous memb. of stomach is
rugated & is provided with a large number
of glands, each gland separated from the other by
a fine connective tissue & a plexus of capilla-
ries. In the cardiac pt. of stomach these glands
are small & straight & the membrane presents the
appearance of being divided into a number of diago-
nal spaces. In the pyloric orifice [pt. of stomach] the membrance
is raised into ridges of papillae & the gland are
larger & more fortuous. Throughout the stomach
& alimentary canal the mucous membrane is provi-
ded with an abundance of submucous areolas tis-
sue. In the intestines we find certain glands
1st Lieberkuhn small, straight tubes, scattered
throughout small & large intestine- 2nd Brunner's
racemose, lobulated glands confined to upper pt.
of duodenum, each gland composed of a number of
vesicles or little sacs, connected by areolar tissue,
& surrounded by capillaries & [all] opening into a common
duct. These glands are lined by the common glandu-
lar epithelium. Besides these we find in small
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intestine certain solid glands - scattered here & there
& also collected together (the latter known as peyer-
palthes ) - A thin capsule surrounds each & the
interior consists of small cellular bodies & a
plexus of Capillaries Lastly, we find the villiof
the small intestine- These project from mucous
membrane & consist of extl covering of glandular [ Coluemear ]
Epithelium - under this a capillary plexus &
in the centre a lacteal vessel - we also find
mucous membrane of intestine thrown into
certain folds, called valvulae Conniventes-
The membrane of the large intestine is gathered
into folds, forming pouches, by longitudinal
muscular fibres. 2. Commencing at the Antr nares & taking the respira-
tory mucous membrane we find it covered by
a ciliated columnar Epithelium & provided
with the ordinary mucous glands- for a short
distance from [antr] nares the epithelium is of the squa-
mous variety. The amount of submucous areolar
tissue in the larynx is less in children than in
adults. The ciliated epithelium ceases at the [air] vessicles
These are lined by a thin membrane & covered by
a layer of [small] round ed epithelium cells. 3. Commencing at meatus Urinarius we find the
urethra lined by squaumous epithelium & provided
with glands whose openings are directed for
ward & often arrest the passage of cathetic.
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We also find the orifice of a lobulated gland, known as
"Cowper's" gland. The membrane of the bladder is rugous
& covered by squamous epithelium- at the base
of the bladder the membrane is smooth. In the
Ureter & pelvis of kidney the epithelium is more of
a columnar character. 4. The membrane of the vagina is covered by squam-
ous Epithelium & that of uterus and fallopian tubes
by columnar ciliated epithelium. A peculiarity of
the Uterine mucous membrane is the Entire absence
of submucous areolar tissue, so that the membrane
lies on the muscular tissue & is with difficulty
dissected off. The membrane is provided with a
number of small, straight glands. The other mu-
cous membranes do not present sufficient ly
peculiarities to call for separate description.
That of Lympanium is lined by Columar ciliated epithelium
II. Give the result of a vertical section incision
made in the exact middle of the commission
of the spinal cord. Investigation has shown that the motor
fibres on reaching the cord, enter the antr & lateral
Columns & then pass up th the medulla oblon-
gata, where they decussate. On the other hand,
the sensitive fibres aft decussates as soon
as they enter the cords & then pass up the
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postr columns of the Cords- from the above distribu-
tion of the fibres, it would follow that a vertical
incision [made] through the middle of the commissure, at
a certain part of the cords, would sever the
sensitive fibres decussating at that point
of incision, & the number of severed fibres depen-
ding upon the length of the incision. It would
hence produce paralysis of sensibility in the
parts below, but only to in those parts to which
the [severed] fibres were distributed. III. Give the minute structure of the kidney.
The Kidney, placed [is situated] on the side of the lumbar
vertebrae & in [post part of] the lumbar region. It is about
5 inches in length - weighs about 6 ounces- its large
end directed upward & small end downward- is convey
on outr surface- concave [flat] on postr surface. Extl
border convex- intl concave & presents a depression
called the hibium , at which pt. the artery enters & the Vein
& Ureter leave. The organ is covered by a fibrous
membrane. The ureter as it enters the kidney
dilates into a sac, called the pelvis & this sub-
divides into the infundibula,which are 3 in num-
ber. Each infundibulum divides into several
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Calyces & [into] these project the apices of the medullary [pyramids.]
This The substance of the Kidney is divided into a
central, pyramidal, or medullary part & an extl
cortical part. The latter also dips down between
the pyramids. The pyramids are from 10 to 13 in
number, & each pyramids presents at its apex a
number of minute orifices, the commencement of the
tubuli unif Uriniferi. tracing the tubes upward
we find them branching at an acute angle. They
are about 1/500 of an inch [in] diameter & are sometimes
called the tubes of Ferrein. These tubes pursue a
straight course up [to] the base of the pyramid
& then entering the cortical part becomes very
fortuous & convoluted. Each tube consist of
a basement membrane & is lined with a layer of
glandular epithelium, which fills about 1/2 the
calibre of the calibre of the Kidney, tube. Some of
the convoluted tubes of cortical part dip down
between the pyramid & return in loops, some-
times known as tubes of steule. Each tube
in both parts of the covered & from [Kidney is covered by] a fine
connective tissue which serves to hold the
tubes together. We find the convoluted
tubes dilated at this extremities into bul-
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bous enlargements. within this bulbous eg . We
find a capillary s plexus & this forced [constitutes] the
malpighian body. Close examination reveals a
layer of epithelium lining the extremity of the
tube & a 2nd layer of small cells covering
the plexus of vessels. The renal artery on
entering the Kidney divides into a number of brand,
which pass up the pyramids, form an arterial
plexus open this bases & thence supply ing the
Cortical portion & entering the [dilated] extremity of the
tube to supply [form] the malpighian bodies. The vessels
on leaving the malpighian bodies break up into
a minute venous plexus covering extl surface
of the malpigian bodies, - thence pass toward
medullary substance, form a second plexus
(venous) over bases of pyramids & from
this straight vessels pass down the pyram-
idal portion to form the renal vein. Respectfully submitted,
Walter Reed |
